Survivor: Archaic Homo Sapiens in the Time of Neanderthals

Sharon N. Solomon xerexes@yahoo.com

Dept. of Anthropology

University of Toronto Dec. 2000

NOTE: This is a fictional evolutionary scenario written for a graduate seminar in Reproductive Ecology. While some human evolutionary data has been incorporated into the narrative, it is not intended to be viewed as anything other than an imaginative interpretation of the data

Life in the Tagi Tribe: Zhou’s Story

Zhou stood at the entrance of the rock shelter and looked down into the valley below. The sun was still shining brightly in the late afternoon sky, creating sharp contrasts of light and shadow throughout the landscape. Off in the distance, the light reflected off of the surface of a large glacial lake. Countless varieties of birds flocked and circled along the lake shore, raising and falling in spiraling patterns of flight and feeding. Great herds of migrating gazelle, antelope, bison, horses, aurochs, mammoth and wooly rhinoceros made their way across the valley, raising billowing clouds of dust. Squinting her eyes against the sun’s bright glare, she scanned for the hunting party.

Behind her, she heard the clamour of activity as cooking fires and young children were tended. From the corner of her eye she could see a small group of children chasing each other around some fallen rocks. They ranged in age from four to nine, still too young to be helpful with the cooking or hunting, but old enough to occupy themselves while the rest of the tribe was busy. She, of course, was beyond their simple play. Very soon, she knew, she would start her monthly cycle and join the ranks of the adult females. Once she shed her first menstrual blood, she would be taken into the women's shelter, and initiated into the ranks of adult females. Her ears would be pierced and she would receive a totemic tattoo. Until she bore her first child, she could only wear two braids in her hair. Afterward, she could do what she liked. But that would come in time. Until then, the only thing which identified her as female were the beads she wore in her long, braided hair.

She glanced over her shoulder at the activity behind her. There were several small fires and one large central cooking hearth. Both males and females were busy, either preparing the evening meal, making or repairing tools or tending to young infants. There were thirty people in the Tagi summer camp; twelve adults over the age of twenty, ten young adults between the ages of eleven and fourteen who had completed their rites of passage into adulthood, and eight children under the age of ten. The oldest adult was Qafzeh. At sixty-five, she was the matriarch and current leader of the tribe.

The physical characteristics of the members of the Tagi tribe were quite varied. Skin color ranged through several shades of light sandy beige to deep, ruddy browns. The older adults had deeply lined faces, although this was not an accurate indication of their true age. Some tribal members had low, prominent foreheads, deep set eyes, and large facial features. Others had relatively smaller, flat faces, with a high forehead and a protruding lower jaw. The remainder of the tribe exhibited a combination of these facial characteristics.

Hair and eye colour ranged in a plethora of combinations throughout the tribe. There were as many brown eyed blondes with tightly curled hair, as there were blue eyed brunettes with straight locks. The stature of the adults ranged from 1.5 to 1.8 m, with males and females roughly the same height. Body shape was also quite variable. All of the adults were leanly muscular, with well developed thighs and calves. Some Tagi members, no matter how much they gorged themselves, never seemed to increase in size. Others tended to increase in girth, even if they ate in moderation.

Childcare in the Tagi tribe was communal, although new mothers tended to spend most of their time fussing over their own children. Both males and females took as active a role as they desired in the raising of their young, dependent upon their individual personalities. Zhou's own mother, Hadar, seldom spent time with any of her three children. Hadar, at thirty-four, was one of the best hunters in their tribe. While she was well liked, she preferred to spend time away from the rest of the tribe, exploring the surrounding areas in solitude.

There were no formalized family units within the tribe. Liaisons and alliances formed and dissolved fluidly over time. As long as a new member attempted to integrate into the tribe, they were free to stay as long as they wished. In the case of consorts, these alliances seldom lasted more than a few years. Some breakups were more dramatic than others, of course. During the last full moon, Qafzeh had kicked her last consort out of the tribe, with a hail of rocks and verbal abuses.

On either side of the rock shelter were a variety of favoured berry bushes and fruit trees. These seemed to spring up in areas used by the tribe for defecation. Below the rock shelter, in a natural crevasse, animal bones and other food waste which could not be burned, were deposited. Beyond this area lay a thick forested region, broken occasionally by clearings and other rock shelters. The forest was home to a variety of animals such as red deer, rabbits, and boar. Heading down river, within a morning’s walk, slightly higher up the ridge, was the rock shelter occupied by The Oprah. Originally a member of the Pagong tribe, she was the spiritual counselor and medicine woman for both Tagi and Pagong tribes.

Continuing in the same direction, was the rock shelter of the Pagong tribe. Members of the Pagong tribe resembled the members of the Tagi tribe. The Pagong members were generally more heavily muscled, and appropriately strong. Their facial features seemed larger, and their eyes more deeper set, however, there was the same variation in stature, skin, hair and eye color, as found in the Tagi tribe. Their speech patterns were characteristically low pitched and husky, but easily understandable.

Pagong had been a trading and alliance partner with Tagi for as long as anyone could remember. Individuals frequently moved between tribes, for varying lengths of time, either as consorts or as new members. Both groups were trading partners with the tribes across the river, and as such, no tribe feared attack by any of the others. The biggest concern for all the tribes were fatal injuries sustained while foraging or hunting, mysterious wasting diseases, wounds which would not heal, and the dangers of childbirth and infancy.

Zhou returned to her look out for the hunting party. She scanned down the trail from the rock shelter to the valley. Then she spotted them. A group of seven men and women wearing light hide wraps around their hips, bare chested and carrying the day’s catch amongst them. At the front of the tribe, with a large pack on her back, strode Hadar. Zhou was still to far away to make out any conversation, but she could tell by their body language that the group had had a successful day from their animated gestures and crackles of laughter.

She hurried to collect her younger brothers. The rocks amongst which they were playing were covered with bright ochre hand prints and an assortment of squiggles, randomly placed at varying heights and locations. Two little boys with ochre stained hands were intently adding their contribution the rock face, while a group of little boys and girls nattered excitedly to each other as they fashioned flakes from a pile of stones. Unfortunately, just as she arrived, little Afar chose that moment to hit his big brother, Pith, on the nose with a small rock. Suddenly, in a domino effect, the rock shelter was pierced with screams from all of the little children as Pith’s nose dripped blood down his face and onto his chest. Her heart pounding with both fear and anger, Zhou grabbed both little boys by the arms and hauled them off to their sleeping area to tend to the damage.

Roughly placing Afar on his sleeping hide, Zhou turned her attention to the weeping Pith. Instructing him to sit still, she carefully cleaned away the quickly drying bloody with soft, damp bedding grasses. Placing a bundle of some sweet smelling herbs into a small bag, she told Afar to hold it gently against Pith’s nose while she went for some water. Making her way past the hide partitions of each sleeping area, Zhou entered the tribe’s storage area at the back of the rock shelter. Covered woven baskets were filled with a variety of nuts, fruits, berries, and dried meats. These baskets were placed in leather lined, natural depressions in the rock shelter floor to keep them cool and dry. Next to this area was a small, deep depression which was filled with fresh water. This pool was fed by the steady flow of water down the rear walls of the shelter. Collecting water in a hollowed gourd, and filling her sack with an assortment of fruits and dried meat, Zhou hurried back to her brothers.

The tribe did not eat communally but in small groups scattered in favourite locations around the rock shelter. While there were no assigned tasks, it was generally the younger adults and children who were responsible for trapping small animals, and the gathering of fruits, berries and firewood. All adults, were entrusted with group defense, cooking, tending the fires, hunting large game, and the care of young children. At night, the adults took turns tending the fire and keeping a defensive watch for strangers and predatory animals.The smell of roasting meat filled the rock shelter. The members of the hunting party had given their packs full of meat to those tending the cooking fires. The meat would be cleaned and seasoned with herbs. A portion of the meat was smoked and dried for storage. The remainder would be cooked and distributed amongst the tribe. The hunters headed back down the slope to the river to wash the day’s grime and blood from their bodies.

Birth: Koobi’s Story

Koobi closed her eyes and clenched her teeth to stifle a cry of pain as the contraction racked her body. She had been experiencing labour pains since before the sun came up that morning. The muscles in her thighs burned as she tried to retain her squatting position. She leaned back against the supporting body of Qafzeh, who murmured soothing noises into her ear while firmly massaging Koobi’s distended belly. The heat in the women's shelter was almost oppressive, and the smoke from the fire was beginning to sting her eyes. Fora wiped her daughter’s brow with a soft leaf, and stroked Koobi’s sweat matted hair in compassion. Turkana and Tanzania, Koobi’s birth mates, chanted rhythmically to the accompaniment of bone rattles. The flint flakes inside the leather pouches produced a high pitched tinkling sound as their bone handles were shaken in a precise semicircular pattern. Aromatic herbs smoldered in the fire, serving both to relax and cleanse Koobi through the birth of her third child.

Breathing slowly and deeply, Koobi gave one final push and placed one hand between her legs to catch her baby as it made its entrance into the world. The bed of dried grasses on which she had spent the last several hours squatting had become saturated with blood and other bodily fluids. While Koobi wiped her new son clean with a soft piece of hide, Fora quickly added a fresh layer of bedding grasses and waited for the placenta to drop. Qafzeh deftly freed the baby from its umbilical cord with a swipe of a small flint blade. She then wrapped placenta in a broad leaf and placed the bundle in the fire.

Koobi cooed softly to her son, cradling him against her engorged breasts. He waved his wrinkled fists in the air, and opened his eyes to stare at his mother for the first time. The other women had now gathered around Koobi to softly offer wishes of praise, but were careful not to touch the new baby. Slowly they moved to the far end of the shelter, leaving Koobi, lying on a fresh bedding of grasses and hides, to nurse her son.

Outside of the women's’ shelter, near the main living quarters of the rock shelter, Omo, Koobi’s current consort tended to her first born son, Nagadon. At six, Nagadon was a willful and spoiled child. He was rarely out of the company of his mother, and for the last few hours had been trying the patience of the entire tribe with a hysterical screaming fit. Usually, the children of the band were quite independent and social once they had been weaned. However, Omo had been allowed to nurse continuously since his birth, due in no small part to the miscarriage of Koobi’s second child the previous summer. Qafzeh lifted the flap of the shelter and moved to join the group sitting by the communal fire. The members of the Tagi tribe would not acknowledge the birth of a child until a complete lunar cycle had passed. At that point, there would be a naming ceremony and the child would be admitted as a member of the tribe. Until then, Koobi would remain inside of the women’s shelter, attended by her birth mates and mother.

Sex or Mating?: Hadar’s Story

Hadar silently made her way along the animal trail. The forest surrounding the rock shelter was full of a variety predators as well as prey. She scanned for the location of the boar trap she had set the previous day, while carefully noting different animal tracks and droppings lining the route. Towering trees filtered the afternoon sun, highlighting the colour palette of the countless varieties plants. The trail opened into a small clearing, which was lined by tall shrubs and thick berry bushes on all sides.

Suddenly, she sensed that she is being watched. Standing still, poised to either flee or attack, Hadar tensed her muscles and clutched her spear. Hearing a rustle in the bushes, close to the boar trail, Hadar raised her spear and took aim. From behind the bushes, a low pitched, husky male voice called out a friendly greeting. He identified himself as Tabun, a member of the neighbouring Pagong tribe. Raising both hands in the air, in a gesture of goodwill, he slowly entered the clearing and walked in Hadar’s direction.

Her heart still pounding from the adrenaline rush moments before, Hadar gaped at the male approaching her. He was about her height, with sun bleached, matted blond hair tied back with a leather strap. His deep set green eyes were framed by thick, dark lashes. He was a little fairer skinned than she was, but had the characteristic broad, heavily muscled build and strong facial features of the Pagong tribe. There was a rush of heat to her face, and a hollow feeling in the pit of her stomach as she stared at Tabun. Her glance lingering on his broad chest, flat stomach, muscular arms and legs. Both of his arms were covered in tattoos, and scar ran from the tip of his left shoulder to the nipple.

While she had been intently staring at him, Tabun had performed his own inventory of her physical features. She was not as muscular or broad as the women in his tribe, and her face was small with a round forehead. Her hair was a wavy, reddish brown and cut to her shoulders. Her breasts were of average size, and her waist and hips were in proportion to the rest of her body. She had long legs and arms, which gave her the appearance of being much taller and slighter than the females of Pagong. He couldn’t tell what color her eyes were since the pupils were completely dilated. A flush had spread across her breasts up to her cheeks. He noticed that her nipples had hardened while he was approaching her.

Unconsciously straightening his posture and tightening the muscles in his abdomen, he patted his hair with one hand as he completed the final steps to where she was standing. Tabun stared directly into her eyes and smiled broadly at Hadar. She felt flustered, blood pounding loudly in her ears, her breathing quickened in excitement. It felt as though her heart would leap out of her chest. Flipping her hair, she dropped her gaze and muttered that she was checking her traps. Raising her hand to push the hair out of her eyes, she dropped her spear in nervous excitement.

They both reached down to pick it up at the same time and brushed up against one another. Slowly straightening, Tabun took a step back. Hadar closed the distance between them. She ran a finger along his scar, and slid her other hand under his hide wrap. Tabun leaned forward and placed his mouth on the nape of her neck. Using his lips and tongue, he traced a path to the sensitive skin at the base of her throat. His hands moved in long, slow strokes down her back to her buttocks. She pressed her body to his, and began to stimulate his penis with her hand. Both were now breathing heavily, faces flushed, blood pounding in their veins.

Hadar pushed Tabun to the ground, removed her hide wrap and straddled him. He assisted her by pushing his wrap aside, before placing his hands on her hips to position her onto his erection. Both uttered moans of satisfaction as Hadar slowly raised and lowered herself to meet Tabun’s thrusts. He fondled her breasts as she threw back her head in orgasmic bliss. After several minutes, Tabun grabbed Hadar firmly by the hips and with a few final thrusts, arched his back as he climaxed. She stimulated herself to orgasm one final time and then collapsed, spent but invigorated, onto the grass beside Tabun. When she had regained her breath, she stood up, brushed herself off and retied her wrap. As she bent down to collect her spear and pack, she gave Tabun a brief, hard kiss on the mouth, and then headed back to the Tagi rock shelter without a backward glance.

Death: Klasies’ Story

A small group of Tagi members, led by Qafzeh, carefully made their way across the valley to the leopard’s tree. A few days before, a group of young adults and children gathering firewood and tubers, had been attacked. The children, protected within the circle formed by the young adults, were not harmed but several of their protectors suffered deep cuts. With time, these wounds would heal, and they would bear a permanent testament of their bravery on their bodies.

However, one of the young male was not so lucky. At 14, Klasies was a tall, strapping adult. He was known for his gentle nature and delicate features. It was acknowledged by the tribe that, while he would never be a strong hunter, he was very innovative and well liked. It was Klasies who would teach the younger children nonsensical, rhythmic chants to help them remember the names of animals and plants. He had even fashioned a two-part spear to aid in the hunting of aurochs and horses, although only Hadar had been willing to test it.

The muscles in Klasies thigh had been severed during the attack.

children had related how the leopard, after delivering a fatal bite to the back of his neck, had carried off his body. Qafzeh now led a small group to try to recover Klasies’ head. Signaling for the group to fan out, she cautiously scanned for signs of the leopard. Motioning that the area was safe, the group approached the base of the tree.

There were broken bits of animal bones strewn in a wide area, some of which may have once belonged to Klasies. After several minutes of searching, Qafzeh recovered the skull. There were still bits of shriveled flesh clinging to it, but these were carefully cut and scraped off with a sharp flake. She widened the hole at the base of the skull and then, using a sharpened digging stick, dislodged and removed its contents. Placing the skull in a large leather pack, Qafzeh and her group made their way back across the valley toward the river. The skull was washed clean, and clay was collected from along the river bank.

When it was dry, the skull was covered in a thick layer of white clay. A simplified representation of Klasies’ features was then moulded. The skull was then wrapped in damp plant fibers, and placed into a shallow pit lined with hot embers and dried grasses. The hot pit was then covered with loose sediment and left to bake.

Two days later, the entire Tagi tribe, faces covered with streaks of charcoal, witnessed the ‘rebirth’ of Klasies, as his clay encased skull was removed from its burial. The skull was then passed to each member of the tribe to offer final words of parting and messages for members of Tagi who were no longer physically with the tribe. Qafzeh then lead the tribe, chanting, upriver to their ancestral cave. A large fire was lit at the mouth of the cave, and the tribal members chanted and sang until the sun began to rise. Qafzeh and the mother of Klasies, carried the clay shrouded skull deep into the cave where it was placed on a natural rock shelf in the company of the Tagi ancestors.